In the years following Independence, schooling for girls in India was rarely unconditional. Families often allowed daughters into classrooms as long as education did not interfere with domestic responsibilities, social norms or expectations around marriage. Adolescence frequently marked the end of this fragile arrangement. Puberty, distance to school or household pressure became reasons enough for withdrawal. For many girls, education was not a right but a privilege that could be revoked.
Seven decades later, the country has made undeniable progress. Primary enrolment among girls is now nearly universal. The more difficult challenge, however, lies in retention. It is during adolescence that India continues to lose a large share of its girls from the education system. These exits are rarely abrupt or dramatic. More often, they are quiet and cumulative, shaped by everyday institutional failures rather than singular events.
The reasons girls stop attending school are well documented. Data from the National Family Health Survey shows that adolescent girls who drop out do so largely not to earn wages but to shoulder household responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning and caregiving. Education beyond Class 8 remains inaccessible in much of rural India. Only a small proportion of rural schools offer secondary education, requiring girls to travel long distances, often on foot, along routes families consider unsafe. Transport costs, where available, add another layer of financial strain.
Early marriage remains a decisive factor in several states, particularly Rajasthan, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Once married, girls are far less likely to return to school. The loss is permanent, not temporary. This pattern continues despite legal safeguards, highlighting the limits of policy in the absence of supportive social infrastructure.
Another barrier, less visible but equally powerful, is menstruation. Multiple studies show that lack of information, absence of clean and functional toilets, limited access to sanitary products and deep-rooted stigma contribute directly to absenteeism and dropout. An estimated 2.3 crore girls in India are at risk of discontinuing school after menarche. The problem is not biology but design. Schools often fail to accommodate a normal stage of adolescent development, signalling to girls that their bodies are incompatible with public learning spaces.
These pressures intersect with mental health concerns. Adolescent girls, particularly in rural and low-income settings, report higher levels of anxiety, emotional distress and isolation. Yet counselling services and trusted support systems remain scarce within schools. Silence becomes the default response, not because the burden is light, but because it is poorly recognised.
The consequences of girls leaving school extend far beyond individual ambition. Education during adolescence plays a decisive role in shaping long-term outcomes for families and communities.
First, schooling delays premature adult roles. Adolescence is a critical period for cognitive, emotional and social development. The structure of school schedules, examinations and grade progression creates a socially recognised framework that postpones early marriage and full-time caregiving responsibilities. Without this framework, girls are more likely to be absorbed into adult roles before they are prepared for them.
Second, education stabilises households economically. Women who complete secondary and post-secondary education are more likely to access formal employment, earn higher wages and exercise greater control over household resources. Evidence consistently shows that women’s income is more likely to be invested in children’s nutrition, healthcare and education. These benefits compound across generations, creating durable gains in human development.
Third, schools function as sites of supervision and accountability. Attendance records, peer networks and teacher engagement make prolonged absence visible. This visibility is crucial for preventing child labour, early marriage and abuse. When girls leave school, they often exit institutional oversight altogether, making them more vulnerable to exploitation.
Finally, education redistributes power. Schooling equips girls with knowledge of rights, laws and civic institutions. Communities with higher levels of female education show greater participation in local governance, lower tolerance for violence and more equitable social norms. Education does not merely improve economic outcomes. It reshapes expectations about gender, authority and opportunity.
Public policy has rightly focused on expanding access. However, access alone does not guarantee continuity. The next phase of reform must address the conditions under which girls remain in school during adolescence.
This includes ensuring clean, private and functional toilets; consistent access to menstrual hygiene products; age-appropriate health and reproductive education; safe transport or residential facilities where required; and teachers trained to respond with sensitivity rather than silence. It also requires recognising adolescent mental health as integral to educational retention rather than treating it as a separate concern.
Civil society organisations have played an important role in addressing these gaps where public systems struggle to reach consistently. Smile Foundation’s work offers one example of how integrated approaches can improve outcomes. Through its gender and girl child programmes, the organisation combines schooling with health services, nutrition support, menstrual hygiene management, counselling and sustained community engagement. By addressing the reasons girls leave school rather than reacting after dropout occurs, such interventions strengthen retention.
Importantly, these programmes do not focus on girls alone. They work with teachers, parents and boys to normalise conversations around puberty, health and care. When boys are included in discussions around empathy and shared responsibility, classroom cultures shift. Stigma weakens not through instruction alone but through everyday practice.
India’s demographic future depends not simply on enrolling girls in school but on supporting them through adolescence. If schools continue to overlook girls’ safety, health and everyday realities, enrolment gains will continue to erode quietly. When girls learn, generations do change. Not through rhetoric but through systems that make learning possible, dignified and sustained over time.
